Introduction

Lean experts typically view 3P as one of the most powerful and transformative advanced manufacturing tools, and it is typically only used by organizations that have experience implementing other lean methods. Whereas kaizen and other lean methods take a production process as a given and seek to make improvements, the Production Preparation Process (3P) focuses on eliminating waste through product and process design.

3P seeks to meet customer requirements by starting with a clean product development slate to rapidly create and test potential product and process designs that require the least time, material, and capital resources. This method typically involves a diverse group of individuals in a multi-day creative process to identify several alternative ways to meet the customer's needs using different product or process designs. 3P typically results in products that are less complex, easier to manufacture (often referred to as "design for manufacturability"), and easier to use and maintain. 3P can also design production processes that eliminate multiple process steps and that utilize homemade, right-sized equipment that better meet production needs.

Ultimately, 3P methods represent a dramatic shift from the continuous, incremental improvement of existing processes sought with kaizen events. Instead, 3P offers potential to make "quantum leap" design improvements that can improve performance and eliminate waste to a level beyond that which can be achieved through the continual improvement of existing processes.

Method and Implementation Approach

With 3P, the teams spend several days (with singular focus on the 3P event) working to develop multiple alternatives for each process step and evaluating each alternative against manufacturing criteria (e.g., designated takt time) and a preferred cost. The goal is typically to develop a process or product design that meets customer requirements best in the "least waste way". The typical steps in a 3P event are described below.

• Define Product or Process Design Objectives/Needs: The team seeks to understand the core customer needs that need to be met. If a product or product prototype is available, the project team breaks it down into component parts and raw materials to assess the function that each plays.
• Diagraming: A fishbone diagram or other type of illustration is created to demonstrate the flow from raw material to finish product. The project team then analyzes each branch of the diagram (or each illustration) and brainstorms key words (e.g., roll, rotate, form, bend) to describe the change (or "transformation") made at each branch.
• Find and Analyze Examples in Nature: The project team then tries to find examples of each process keyword in the natural world. For example, forming can be found in nature when a heavy animal such as an elephant walks on mud, or when water pressure shapes rocks in a river. Similar examples are grouped and examples that best exemplify the process key word researched to better understand how the examples occur in nature. Here, team members place heavy emphasis on how nature works in the example and why. Once the unique qualities of the natural process are dissected, team members then discuss how the natural process can be applied to the given manufacturing process step.
• Sketch and Evaluate the Process: Sub-teams are formed and each sub-tea member is required to draw different ways to accomplish the process in question. Each of the sketches is evaluated and the best is chosen (along with any good features from the sketches that are not chosen) for a mock-up.
• Build, Present, and Select Process Prototypes: The team prototypes and then evaluates the chosen process, spending several days (if necessary) working with different variations of the mock-up to ensure it will meet criteria.
• Hold Design Review: Once a concept has been selected for additional refinement, it is presented to a larger group (including the original product designers) for feedback.
• Develop Project Implementation plan: If the project is selected to proceed, the team selects a project implementation leader who helps determine the schedule, process, resource requirements, and distribution of responsibilities for completion.

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

3P has many similarities to Design for Environment methods, in that both focus on eliminating waste at the product and process design stage. These techniques can have a profound impact of environmental quality by avoiding design approaches that produce detrimental environmental impacts. 3P looks to nature for design models, where processes are inherently waste free.

3P often results in right-sized equipment that lowers the material and energy requirements for production. Right-sized equipment also takes up less space, reducing the environmental impacts associated with that space (e.g., heating, cooling, lighting, cleaning and maintenance materials, building materials, land use).

3P's focus on reducing the complexity of the production process ("design for manufacturability") can eliminate process steps or substitute one process step or another that requires less time, materials, or capital. In many cases, environmentally sensitive processes are targeted for elimination, since they are often time consuming, resource intensive, and capital intensive. Examples include:

1. elimination of painting steps by reducing product flaws or using alternative processes such as colored injection molding, and
2. substituting hot melt, gun-applied adhesives or mechanical fasteners for spray adhesives that produce air emissions and hazardous waste.

3P encourages product designs that are less complex. This often translates into using fewer parts and fewer types of materials. Such designs are typically improve the ease of disassembly and recycling for products, characteristics that are encouraged by public environmental agencies.

Potential Shortcoming:

Failure to consider risk and pollution associated with process or product design can result in options that have larger environmental impacts than could otherwise have been achieved.

Failure to incorporate environmental considerations and goals into a 3P process can potentially result in the disregard of valuable pollution prevention and sustainability options.

Useful Resources

Vaughn, Amanda, Fernandes Pradeep and J. Tom Shields. An Introduction to the Manufacturing System Design Framework – Draft. (A product of the Manufacturing Systems Team of the Lean Aerospace Initiative).

Introduction

Six Sigma consists of a set of statistical methods for systemically analyzing processes to reduce process variation, which are sometimes used to support and guide organizational continual improvement activities. Six Sigma's toolbox of statistical process control and analytical techniques are being used by some companies to assess process quality and waste areas to which other lean methods can be applied as solutions. Six Sigma is also being used to further drive productivity and quality improvements in lean operations.

Six Sigma was developed by Motorola in the 1990s, drawing on well-established statistical quality control techniques and data analysis methods. The term sigma is a Greek alphabet letter (σ) used to describe variability. A sigma quality level serves as an indicator of how often defects are likely to occur in processes, parts, or products. A Six Sigma quality level equates to approximately 3.4 defects per million opportunities, representing high quality and minimal process variability.

It is important to note that not all companies using Six Sigma methods are implementing lean manufacturing systems or using other lean methods. Six Sigma has evolved among some companies to include methods for implementing and maintaining performance of process improvements. The statistical tools of Six Sigma system are designed to help an organization correctly diagnose the root causes of performance gaps and variability, and apply the most appropriate tools and solutions in addressing those gaps.

Method and Implementation Approach

A sequence of steps called the Six Sigma DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control) is typically used to guide implementation of Six Sigma statistical tools and to identify process wastes and weaknesses. Six Sigma DMAIC phases include:

• Define. This phase focuses on defining the project improvement activity goals and identifying the issues that need to be addressed to achieve a higher sigma level.
• Measure. In this phase, the aim is to gather information about the targeted process. Metrics are established and used to obtain baseline data on process performance and to help identify problem areas.
• Analyze. This phase is concerned with identifying the root cause(s) of quality problems, and confirming those causes using appropriate statistical tools.
• Improve. Here, implementation of creative solutions - ways to do things better, cheaper, and/or faster - that address the problems identified during the analysis phase takes place. Often, other lean methods such as cellular manufacturing, 5S, mistake-proofing, and total productive maintenance are identified as potential solutions. Statistical methods are again used to assess improvement.
• Control. This phase involves institutionalization of the improved system by modifying policies, procedures, and other management systems. Process performance results are again periodically monitored to ensure productivity improvements are sustained.

Some organizations have opted to integrate their kaizen (or rapid continual improvement) processes with Six Sigma approaches. This typically results in the use of statistical tools to aid the identification and measurement of improvement opportunities during and following kaizen event implementation.

It should be noted that some lean experts believe that Six Sigma, as implemented in some organizations, can be contradictory to lean principles. In such cases, Six Sigma experts, often known as "black belts", lead improvement efforts without actively involving workers affected by the improvement effort. Lean experts typically contend that employee involvement and empowerment is critical to fostering the continual improvement, waste elimination culture that is a foundation of lean thinking.

It should be noted that Six Sigma techniques can be relatively sophisticated, and are most frequently utilized by larger organizations and organizations willing to devote resources and talent for developing Six Sigma statistical capabilities.

Several examples of Six Sigma statistical tools are described below.

• Capability Analysis. This tool assists in the maintenance of suitable product specifications. Using this statistical model and analyzing a frequency histogram of an observed production data sample, the long run defects per million opportunities can be determined. Such analyses can consider both "short-term" variability that determines the absolute best a process can produce, and a "long-term" variability that assesses how well a process responds to customer needs.
• Gauge Repeatability & Reproducibility Studies. These studies quantify measurement error by assessing whether measurement processes and equipment produced consistent and accurate measurement outcomes. Without such studies, satisfactory parts might be rejected and unsatisfactory parts accepted. Such errors can lead to lost sales and unnecessary waste.
• Control Charts. Control charts are often used to ensure that essential product characteristics remain constant over time, and to help identify when problems exist. Periodic sample measurements are plotted against the mean and range to see if any noticeable process shifts or other unusual events had occurred. When characteristics cannot be measured, charts are based on the proportion of defective items in a lot. CuSum (Cumulative Sum of Measurements) Charts can also be used to monitor the cumulative sum of deviations against a target value.
• Accelerated Life Tests. Statistical techniques such as a Weibull Distribution and Arrehnius Plot are used to estimate the failure time distribution of products, and to test products designed to last for long periods of time. Such tests are often essential when testing must be conducted under aggressive time constraints, and must engage "stress test environments" such as high temperature, thermal cycling, or high humidity, to evaluate product life.
• Variance Components Analysis. Isolating product variability problems is particularly critical to quality assurance. With this technique, different sources of variability are isolated to help assess where variations in product quality are occurring. Such analyses also provide insight into the sources of variability for process improvement efforts.
• Pareto Analysis. By weighting each type of defect according to severity, cost of repair, and other factors, Pareto charts are used to determine which types of defects occur most frequently. This information facilitates prioritization of response actions. Fundamental to the Pareto principle is the notion that most quality problems are created by a "vital few" processes, and that only a small portion of quality problems result from a "trivial many" processes.

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

By removing variation from production processes, fewer defects inherently result. A reduction in defects can, in turn, help eliminate waste from processes in three fundamental ways:

1. fewer defects decreases the number of products that must be scrapped;
2. fewer defects also means that the raw materials, energy, and resulting waste associated with the scrap are eliminated;
3. fewer defects decreases the amount of energy, raw material, and wastes that are used or generated to fix defective products that can be re-worked.

Six Sigma tools can help focus attention on reducing conditions that can result in accidents, spills, and equipment malfunctions. This can reduce the solid and hazardous wastes (e.g., contaminated rags and adsorbent pads) resulting from spills and leaks and their clean-up. (See Total Productive Maintenance).

Six Sigma techniques that focus on product durability and reliability can increase the lifespan of products. This can reduce the frequency with which the product will need to be replaced, reducing the overall environmental impacts associated with meeting the customer need.

Potential Shortcoming:

Lack of technical capacity to effectively utilize Six Sigma tools can potentially decrease effectiveness of the strategy, and/or result in unexpected waste if inappropriately applied.

Useful Resources

Breyfogle, Forrest W. III. Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999).

Winiarz, Marek L., James Fang and Howard Fuller. Six Sigma Programs Yield Dramatic Improvement Through Application of Lean Manufacturing Methods in the Printed Circuit Board Industry. SAE Technical Paper Series (Warrendale, PA: SAE International, 2001).

Introduction

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) seeks to engage all levels and functions in an organization to maximize the overall effectiveness of production equipment. This method further tunes up existing processes and equipment by reducing mistakes and accidents. Whereas maintenance departments are the traditional center of preventive maintenance programs, TPM seeks to involve workers in all departments and levels, from the plant-floor to senior executives, to ensure effective equipment operation.

Autonomous maintenance, a key aspect of TPM, trains and focuses workers to take care of the equipment and machines with which they work. TPM addresses the entire production system lifecycle and builds a solid, plant-floor based system to prevent accidents, defects, and breakdowns. TPM focuses on preventing breakdowns (preventive maintenance), "mistake-proofing" equipment (or poka-yoke) to eliminate product defects and non-de, or to make maintenance easier (corrective maintenance), designing and installing equipment that needs little or no maintenance (maintenance prevention), and quickly repairing equipment after breakdowns occur (breakdown maintenance).

The goal is the total elimination of all losses, including breakdowns, equipment setup and adjustment losses, idling and minor stoppages, reduced speed, defects and rework, spills and process upset conditions, and startup and yield losses. The ultimate goals of TPM are zero equipment breakdowns and zero product defects, which lead to improved utilization of production assets and plant capacity.

Method and Implementation Approach

TPM is focused primarily on keeping machinery functioning optimally and minimizing equipment breakdowns and associated waste by making equipment more efficient, conducting preventative, corrective, and autonomous maintenance, mistake-proofing equipment, and effectively managing safety and environmental issues. TPM seeks to eliminate five major losses that can result from faulty equipment or operation, as summarized below.

Organizations typically pursue the four techniques below to implement TPM. Kaizen events can be used to focus organizational attention on implementing these techniques (see profile of the Kaizen lean method).

1. Efficient Equipment: The best way to increase equipment efficiency is to identify the losses, among the six described above, that are hindering performance. To measure overall equipment effectiveness, a TPM index, Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is used. OEE is calculated by multiplying (each as a percentage), overall equipment availability, performance and product quality rate. With these figures, the amount of time spent on each of the six big losses, and where most attention needs to be focused, can be determined. It is estimated that most companies can realize a 15-25 percent increase in equipment efficiency rates within three years of adopting TPM.
2. Effective Maintenance: Thorough and routine maintenance is a critical aspect of TPM. First and foremost, TPM trains equipment operators to play a key role in preventive maintenance by carrying out "autonomous maintenance" on a daily basis. Typical daily activities include precision checks, lubrication, parts replacement, simple repairs, and abnormality detection. Workers are also encouraged to conduct corrective maintenance, designed to further keep equipment from breaking down, and to facilitate inspection, repair and use. Corrective maintenance includes recording the results of daily inspections, and regularly considering and submitting maintenance improvement ideas.
3. Mistake-Proofing: Known as poka-yoke¹ in lean manufacturing contexts, mistake-proofing is the application of simple "fail-safing" mechanisms designed to make mistakes impossible or at least easy to detect and correct. Poka-yoke devices fall into two major categories: prevention and detection.
   • A prevention device is one that makes it impossible for a machine or machine operator to make a mistake. For example, many automobiles have "shift locks" that prevent a driver from shifting into reverse unless their foot is on the brake.
   • A detection device signals the user when a mistake has been made, so that the user can quickly correct the problem. In automobiles, a detection device might be a warning buzzer indicating that keys have been inadvertently left in the ignition.
4. Safety Management: The fundamental principle behind TMP safety and environmental management activities is addressing potentially dangerous conditions and activities before they cause accidents, damage, and unanticipated costs. Like maintenance, safety activities under TPM are to be carried out continuously and systematically. Focus areas include
   • the development of safety checklists (e.g., to detect leaks, unusual equipment vibration, or static electricity)
   • the standardization of operations (e.g., materials handling and transport, use of protective clothing, etc.)
   • and coordinating nonrepetitive maintenance tasks (e.g., especially those involving electrical hazards, toxic substances, open flames, etc.).
   In many cases, equipment can be modified (see mistake-proofing) to minimize the likelihood of equipment malfunction and upset conditions.

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

Properly maintaining equipment and systems helps reduce defects that result from a process. A reduction in defects can, in turn, help eliminate waste from processes in three fundamental ways:

1. fewer defects decreases the number of products that must be scrapped;
2. fewer defects also means that the raw materials, energy, and resulting waste associated with the scrap are eliminated;
3. fewer defects decreases the amount of energy, raw material, and wastes that are used or generated to fix defective products that can be re-worked.

TPM can increase the longevity of equipment, thereby decreasing the need to purchase and/or make replacement equipment. This, in turn, reduces the environmental impacts associated with raw materials and manufacturing processes needed to produce new equipment.

TPM often attempts to decrease the number and severity of equipment spills, leaks, and upset conditions. This typically reduces the solid and hazardous wastes (e.g., contaminated rags and adsorbent pads) resulting from spills and leaks and their clean-up.

Potential Shortcomings:

Failure to consider the environmental aspects or impacts associated with equipment during mistake-proofing and equipment efficiency improvement can leave potential waste minimization and pollution prevention opportunities on the table. For example, equipment can often be modified to reduce or eliminate spills, leaks, overspray, and misting that increase clean-up needs.

TPM can result in increased use of cleaning supplies, particularly if the route cause of unclean conditions are not addressed. Cleaning supplies may contain solvents and/or chemicals that can result in air emissions or increased waste generation.

Useful Resources

Campbell, John Dixon. Uptime: Strategies for Excellence in Maintenance Management ( Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1995).

The Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance, ed. TPM for Every Operator (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1996).

Leflar, James. Practical TPM: Successful Equipment Management at Agilent Technologies (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 2001).

Robinson, Charles and Andrew Ginder. Introduction to Implementing TPM: The North American Experience (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1995).

Suzuki, Tokutaro, ed. TPM in Process Industries (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1994).

Footnotes

1. Comes from the Japanese words poka (inadvertent mistake) and yoke (prevent).

Introduction

Just-in-time production, or JIT, and cellular manufacturing are closely related, as a cellular production layout is typically a prerequisite for achieving just-in-time production. JIT leverages the cellular manufacturing layout to reduce significantly inventory and work-in-process (WIP). JIT enables a company to produce the products its customers want, when they want them, in the amount they want.

Under conventional mass production approaches, large quantities of identical products are produced, and then stored until ordered by a customer. JIT techniques work to level production, spreading production evenly over time to foster a smooth flow between processes. Varying the mix of products produced on a single line, sometimes referred to as "shish-kebab production", provides an effective means for producing the desired production mix in a smooth manner.

JIT frequently relies on the use of physical inventory control cues (or kanban) to signal the need to move raw materials or produce new components from the previous process. In some cases, a limited number of reusable containers are used as kanban, assuring that only what is needed gets produced. Many companies implementing lean production systems are also requiring suppliers to deliver components using JIT. The company signals its suppliers, using computers or delivery of empty, reusable containers, to supply more of a particular component when they are needed. The end result is typically a significant reduction in waste associated with unnecessary inventory, WIP, and overproduction.

Method and Implementation Approach

Key elements of JIT, and techniques for achieving JIT, are discussed below.

Load leveling. This technique involves determining appropriate quantities and types of products needed in a given day to meet customer orders. This technique allows organizations to produce products with a variety of customer specifications each day (using a daily schedule), in a smooth sequence that minimizes inventory and delay. Takt time is critical to the daily scheduling required in leveled production described above. It is the rate at which each product must be completed to meet customer needs, expressed in amount of time per part.

Production Sequencing. This involves calculating the pattern for making each product type in the required amount for any given day, by calculating the takt time for the daily quantity of each type.

Kanban. Often referred to as the "nervous system" of lean production, kanban is a key technique that determines a processes production quantities, and in doing so, facilitates JIT production and ordering systems. Contrary to more traditional "push" methods of mass production which are based on an estimated number of expected sales, kanban's "pull" system creates greater flexibility on the production floor, such that the organization only produces what is ordered.

More specifically, a kanban¹ is a card, labeled container, computer order, or other device used to signal that more products or parts are needed from the previous process step. The kanban contain information on the exact product or component specifications that are needed for the subsequent process step. Kanban are used to control work-in-progress (WIP), production, and inventory flow.

In this way, kanban serves to ultimately eliminate overproduction, a key form of manufacturing waste. Different types of kanban include: supplier kanban (indicate orders given to outside parts suppliers when parts are needed for assembly lines); in-factory kanban (used between processes in a factory); and production kanban (indicate operating instructions for processes within a line).

Kanban are a critical part of a JIT system. In implementing a kanban system, organizations typically focus on four important "rules".

• Kanban works from upstream to downstream in the production process (i.e., starting with the customer order). At each step, only as many parts are withdrawn as the kanban instructs, helping ensure that only what is ordered is made. The necessary parts in a given step always accompanies the kanban to ensure visual control.
• The upstream processes only produce what has been withdrawn. This includes only producing items in the sequence in which the kanban are received, and only producing the number indicated on the kanban.
• Only products that are 100 percent defect-free continue on through the production line. In this way, each step uncovers and then corrects the defects that are found, before any more can be produced.
• The number of kanban should be decreased over time. Minimizing the total number of kanban is the best way to uncover areas of needed improvement. By constantly reducing the total number of kanban, continuous improvement is facilitated by concurrently reducing the overall level of stock in production.

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

JIT/kanban systems help eliminate overproduction. Overproduction affects the environment in three key ways:

1. increases the number of products that must be scrapped or discarded as waste;
2. increases the amount of raw materials used in production;
3. increases the amount of energy, emissions, and wastes (solid and hazardous) that are generated by the processing of the unneeded output.

JIT/kanban systems reduce the amount of necessary in-process and post-process inventory, thereby reducing the potential for products to be damaged during handling and storage, or through deterioration or spoilage over time. Such damaged inventory typically ends up being disposed of as solid or hazardous waste. Frequent inventory turns can also eliminate the need for degreasing processes for metal parts, since the parts may not need to be coated with oils to prevent oxidization or rust while waiting for the next process step.

JIT typically require less floor space for equal levels of production ("this is a factory, not a warehouse"). Reductions in square footage can reduce energy use for heating, air conditioning, and lighting. Reduced square footage can also reduce the resource consumption and waste associated with maintaining the unneeded space (e.g., flourescent bulbs, cleaning supplies). Even more significantly, reducing the spatial footprint of production can reduce the need to construct additional production facilities, as well as the associated environmental impacts resulting from construction material use, land use, and construction wastes.

JIT/kanban systems also help facilitate worker-lead process improvements, as workers are more motivated to make product improvements when there is no excess inventory remaining to be sold.

Excess inventory results in increased energy use associated with the need to transport and reorganize unsold inventory.

Potential Shortcomings:

JIT can result in more frequent "milk runs" for parts and material inputs from sister facilities or suppliers, leading to an increased number of transport trips. This can contribute to traffic congestion, as well as environmental impacts associated with additional fuel use and vehicle emissions. Through efficient load planning, however, the environmental implications of increased milk runs can be significantly reduced or eliminated.

JIT/kanban may not succeed at reducing or eliminating overproduction and associated waste if the products produced have large and/or unpredictable market fluctuations.

JIT, when not implemented throughout the supply chain, can just push inventory carrying activities up the supply chain, along with the associated environmental impacts from overproduction, damaged goods, inventory storage space heating and lighting, etc.

Useful Resources

Productivity Development Team. Just-in-Time for Operators (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1998).

Productivity Press Development Team. Kanban for the Shopfloor (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 2002).

Footnotes

1. Kanban means card or sign in Japanese.

Introduction

In cellular manufacturing, production work stations and equipment are arranged in a sequence that supports a smooth flow of materials and components through the production process with minimal transport or delay. Implementation of this lean method often represents the first major shift in production activity, and it is the key enabler of increased production velocity and flexibility, as well as the reduction of capital requirements.

Rather than processing multiple parts before sending them on to the next machine or process step (as is the case in batch-and-queue, or large-lot production), cellular manufacturing aims to move products through the manufacturing process one-piece at a time, at a rate determined by customers' needs. Cellular manufacturing can also provide companies with the flexibility to vary product type or features on the production line in response to specific customer demands. The approach seeks to minimize the time it takes for a single product to flow through the entire production process.

This one-piece flow method includes specific analytical techniques for assessing current operations and designing a new cell-based manufacturing layout that will shorten cycle times and changeover times. To make the cellular design work, an organization must often replace large, high volume production machines with small, flexible, "right-sized" machines to fit well in the cell. Equipment often must be modified to stop and signal when a cycle is complete or when problems occur, using a technique called autonomation (or jidoka).

This transformation often shifts worker responsibilities from watching a single machine, to managing multiple machines in a production cell. While plant-floor workers may need to feed or unload pieces at the beginning or end of the process sequence, they are generally freed to focus on implementing TPM and process improvements. Using this technique, production capacity can be incrementally increased or decreased by adding or removing production cells.

Method and Implementation Approach

Cellular manufacturing requires a fundamental paradigm shift from "batch and queue" mass production to production systems based on a product aligned "one-piece flow, pull production" system. Batch and queue systems involve mass-production of large inventories in advance, where each functional department is designed to minimize marginal unit cost through large production runs of similar product with minimal tooling changes. Batch and queue entails the use of large machines, large production volumes, and long production runs.

The system also requires companies to produce products based on potential or predicted customer demands, rather than actual demand, due to the lag-time associated with producing goods by batch and queue functional department. In many instances this system can be highly inefficient and wasteful. Primarily, this is due to substantial "work-in-process", or WIP, being placed on hold while other functional departments complete their units, as well as the carrying costs and building space associated with built-up WIP on the factory floor. The figure to the left illustrates the production flow in a batch-and-queue system, where the process begins with a large batch of units from the parts supplier. The parts make their way through the various functional departments in large "lots", until the assembled products eventually are shipped to the customer.

The following steps and techniques are commonly used to implement the conversion to cellular manufacturing.

Step 1: Understanding the Current Conditions. The first step in converting a work area into a manufacturing cell is to assess the current work area conditions, starting with product and process data. For example, PQ (product type/quantity) analysis is used to assess the current product mix. Organizations also typically document the layout and flow of the current processes using process route analyses and value stream mapping (or process mapping).

The next activity is often to measure time elements, including the cycle time for each operation and the lead time required to transport WIP between operations. Takt time, or the number of units each operation can produce in a given time, is another important time element to assess. Time elements are typically recorded on worksheets that graphically display the relationship between manual work time, machine work time, and operator movement time for each step in an operation. These worksheets provide a baseline for measuring performance under a cellular flow.

Step 2: Converting to a Process-based Layout. The next step involves converting the production area to a cellular layout by rearranging the process elements so that processing steps of different types are conducted immediately adjacent to each other. For example, machines are usually placed in U or C shape to decrease the operator's movement, and they are placed close togther with room for only a minimal quantity of WIP. The process flow is often counterclockwise to maximize right hand maneuvers of operators.

To enable a smooth conversion, it is typically necessary to evaluate the machines, equipment, and workstations for movability and adaptability, then develop a conversion plan. In many cases, it is helpful to mock-up a single manufacturing cell to assess its feasibility and performance. The figure to the right illustrates the flow in a cellular production environment, where parts are pulled into the system as signaled by customer demand.

Several techniques are important to facilitate effective cellular layout design and production.

• SMED. Single-minute exchange of die (SMED) enables an organization to quickly convert a machine or process to produce a different product type. A single cell and set of tools can therefore produce a variety of products without the time consuming equipment changeover and set-up time associated with large batch-and-queue processes, enabling the organization to quickly respond to changes in customer demand.
• Autonomation. Autonomation is the transfer of human intelligence to automated machinery so that machines are able to stop, start, load, and unload automatically. In many cases, machines can also be designed to detect the production of a defective part, stop themselves, and signal for help. This frees operators for other value-added work. This concept has also been known as "automation with a human touch" and jidoka, and it was pioneered by Sakichi Toyoda in the early 1900s when he invented automatic looms that stopped instantly when any thread broke. This enabled one operator to manage many machines without risk of producing vast amounts of defective cloth. This technique is closely linked to mistake-proofing, or poka-yoke (see TPM method profile).
• Right-sized equipment. Conversion to a cellular layout frequently entails the replacement of large equipment (sometimes referred to as monuments) with smaller equipment. Right-sized equipment is often mobile, so that it can quickly be reconfigured into a different cellular layout in a different location. In some cases, equipment vendors offer right-sized equipment alternatives, and in other cases companies develop such equipment in-house. A rule of thumb is that machines need not be more than three times larger than the part they are intended to produce.

After moving the equipment and ensuring quick changeover capabilities, organizations typically document new procedures for the new layout and train workers on the new production process. In many cases, workers from the affected processes participate in the conversion process. The new layout is also tested and measured against the baselines recorded in step 1 to confirm improvement.

Step 3: Continuously Improving the Process. This step involves fine tuning all aspects of cell operation to further improve production time, quality, and costs. Kaizen, TPM, and Six Sigma are commonly used as continuous improvement tools for reducing equipment-related losses such as downtime, speed reduction, and defects by stabilizing and improving equipment conditions (see Kaizen, TPM, and Six Sigma method profiles). In some cases, organizations seek to pursue a more systemic redesign of a production process to make a "quantum leap" with regard to production efficiencies and performance. Production Preparation Process (3P) is increasingly used as a method to achieve such improvement (see 3P method profile).

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

Cellular production helps to eliminate overproduction. Overproduction impacts the environment in three key ways:

1. increases the number of products that must be scrapped or discarded as waste;
2. increases the amount of raw materials used in production;
3. increases the amount of energy, emissions, and wastes (solid and hazardous) that are generated by the processing of the unneeded output.

Cellular manufacturing helps reduce waste by reducing defects that result from processing and product changeovers. Since products or components move through a cell one piece at a time, operators can quickly identify and address defects. Autonomation (jidoka) in cellular systems helps prevent waste by signaling when defects occur. Under a conventional batch-and-queue process, it is difficult to identify and respond to defects until the entire batch is produced or numerous pieces are processed. Reducing defects has several environmental benefits:

1. fewer defects decreases the number of products that must be scrapped;
2. fewer defects also means that the raw materials, energy, and resulting waste associated with the scrap are eliminated;
3. fewer defects decreases the amount of energy, raw material, and wastes that are used or generated to fix defective products that can be re-worked.

Shifting to right-sized equipment means that production equipment is sized to work best for the specific product mix being produced, as opposed to the equipment that would meet the largest possible projected production volume. Right-sized equipment typically less material and energy-intensive (per unit of production) than conventional, large-scale equipment.

Cellular production layouts typically require less floor space for equal levels of production ("this is a factory, not a warehouse"). Reductions in square footage can reduce energy use for heating, air conditioning, and lighting. Reduced square footage can also reduce the resource consumption and waste associated with maintaining the unneeded space (e.g., flourescent bulbs, cleaning supplies). Even more significantly, reducing the spatial footprint of production can reduce the need to construct additional production facilities, as well as the associated environmental impacts resulting from construction material use, land use, and construction wastes.

Cellular manufacturing layouts and autonomation can free workers to focus more closely on equipment maintenance (TPM) and pollution prevention, reducing the likelihood of spills and accidents.

Potential Shortcomings:

Switching to cellular manufacturing systems can require investment in new equipment, and potentially, the need to scrap the older, large-scale equipment geared more to batch-and-queue operations. This can produce scrap for recycling and/or waste.

Right-sizing and dispersing environmentally-sensitive production processes throughout a plant can disrupt conventional pollution control systems. For example, shifts to cellular production is often accompanied by a shift to disperse, point-of-use chemical and waste management, which requires an adjustment in chemical and waste management practices. Similarly, shifts to multiple, right-sized painting and coating, parts washing, or chemical milling operations can alter air emissions control approaches, needs, and requirements. If environmental requirements are not addressed sufficiently during the conversion to cellular layouts and right-sized equipment, the organization can impact the environment adversely and/or fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements.

Useful Resources

Hyer, Nancy and Urban Wemmerlöv. Reorganizing the Factory: Competing Through Cellular Manufacturing (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 2001).

Kobayashi, Iwao. 20 Keys to Workplace Improvement (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1995).

Productivity Development Team. Cellular Manufacturing: One-Piece Flow for Workteams (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1999).

Productivity Development Team. Quick Changeover for Operators (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1996).

Shingo, Shigeo. A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1985).

Sekine, Ken'ichi. One Piece Flow: Cell Design for Transforming the Manufacturing Process (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1992).

Introduction

Kaizen, or rapid improvement processes, often is considered to be the "building block" of all lean production methods. Kaizen focuses on eliminating waste, improving productivity, and achieving sustained continual improvement in targeted activities and processes of an organization.

Lean production is founded on the idea of kaizen – or continual improvement. This philosophy implies that small, incremental changes routinely applied and sustained over a long period result in significant improvements. The kaizen strategy aims to involve workers from multiple functions and levels in the organization in working together to address a problem or improve a process. The team uses analytical techniques, such as value stream mapping and "the 5 whys", to identify opportunities quickly to eliminate waste in a targeted process or production area. The team works to implement chosen improvements rapidly (often within 72 hours of initiating the kaizen event), typically focusing on solutions that do not involve large capital outlays.

Periodic follow-up events aim to ensure that the improvements from the kaizen "blitz" are sustained over time. Kaizen can be used as an analytical method for implementing several other lean methods, including conversions to cellular manufacturing and just-in-time production systems.

Method and Implementation Approach

Rapid continual improvement processes typically require an organization to foster a culture where employees are empowered to identify and solve problems. Most organizations implementing kaizen-type improvement processes have established methods and ground rules that are well communicated in the organization and reinforced through training. The basic steps for implementing a kaizen "event" are outlined below, although organizations typically adapt and sequence these activities to work effectively in their unique circumstances.

Phase 1: Planning and Preparation. The first challenge is to identify an appropriate target area for a rapid improvement event. Such areas might include: areas with substantial work-in-progress; an administrative process or production area where significant bottlenecks or delays occur; areas where everything is a "mess" and/or quality or performance does not meet customer expectations; and/or areas that have significant market or financial impact (i.e., the most "value added" activities).

Once a suitable production process, administrative process, or area in a factory is selected, a more specific "waste elimination" problem within that area is chosen for the focus of the kaizen event ( i.e., the specific problem that needs improvement, such as lead time reduction, quality improvement, or production yield improvement). Once the problem area is chosen, managers typically assemble a cross-functional team of employees.

It is important for teams to involve workers from the targeted administrative or production process area, although individuals with "fresh perspectives" may sometimes supplement the team. Team members should all be familiar with the organization's rapid improvement process or receive training on it prior to the "event". Kaizen events are generally organized to last between one day and seven days, depending on the scale of the targeted process and problem. Team members are expected to shed most of their operational responsibilities during this period, so that they can focus on the kaizen event.

Phase 2: Implementation. The team first works to develop a clear understanding of the "current state" of the targeted process so that all team members have a similar understanding of the problem they are working to solve. Two techniques are commonly used to define the current state and identify manufacturing wastes:

• Five Whys. Toyota developed the practice of asking "why" five times and answering it each time to uncover the root cause of a problem. An example is shown below.
  Repeating "Why" Five Times¹
  1. Why did the machine stop?
     There was an overload, and the fuse blew.
  2. Why was there an overload?
     The bearing was not sufficiently lubricated.
  3. Why was it not lubricated sufficiently?
     The lubrication pump was not pumping sufficiently.
  4. Why was it not pumping sufficiently?
     The shaft of the pump was worn and rattling.
  5. Why was the shaft worn out?
     There was no strainer attached, and metal scrap got in.
• Value Stream Mapping. This technique involves flowcharting the steps, activities, material flows, communications, and other process elements that are involved with a process or transformation (e.g., transformation of raw materials into a finished product, completion of an administrative process). Value stream mapping helps an organization identify the non-value-adding elements in a targeted process. This technique is similar to process mapping, which is frequently used to support pollution prevention planning in organizations. In some cases, value stream mapping can be used in phase 1 to identify areas for which to target kaizen events.

During the kaizen event, it is typically necessary to collect information on the targeted process, such as measurements of overall product quality; scrap rate and source of scrap; a routing of products; total product distance traveled; total square feet occupied by necessary equipment; number and frequency of changeovers; source of bottlenecks; amount of work-in-progress; and amount of staffing for specific tasks. Team members are assigned specific roles for research and analysis. As more information is gathered, team members add detail to value stream maps of the process and conduct time studies of relevant operations (e.g., takt time, lead-time).

Once data is gathered, it is analyzed and assessed to find areas for improvement. Team members identify and record all observed waste, by asking what the goal of the process is and whether each step or element adds value towards meeting this goal. Once waste, or non-value added activity, is identified and measured, team members then brainstorm improvement options. Ideas are often tested on the shopfloor or in process "mock-ups". Ideas deemed most promising are selected and implemented. To fully realize the benefits of the kaizen event, team members should observe and record new cycle times, and calculate overall savings from eliminated waste, operator motion, part conveyance, square footage utilized, and throughput time.

Phase 3: Follow-up. A key part of a kaizen event is the follow-up activity that aims to ensure that improvements are sustained, and not just temporary. Following the kaizen event, team members routinely track key performance measures (i.e., metrics) to document the improvement gains. Metrics often include lead and cycle times, process defect rates, movement required, square footage utilized, although the metrics vary when the targeted process is an administrative process. Follow-up events are sometimes scheduled at 30 and 90-days following the initial kaizen event to assess performance and identify follow-up modifications that may be necessary to sustain the improvements. As part of this follow-up, personnel involved in the targeted process are tapped for feedback and suggestions. As discussed under the 5S method, visual feedback on process performance are often logged on scoreboards that are visible to all employees.

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

At its core, kaizen represents a process of continuous improvement that creates a sustained focus on eliminating all forms of waste from a targeted process. The resulting continual improvement culture and process is typically very similar to those sought under environmental management systems (EMS), ISO 14001, and pollution prevention programs. An advantage of kaizen is that it involves workers from multiple functions who may have a role in a given process, and strongly encourages them to participate in waste reduction activities. Workers close to a particular process often have suggestions and insights that can be tapped about ways to improve the process and reduce waste. Organizations have found, however, that it is often difficult to sustain employee involvement and commitment to continual improvement activities (e.g., P2, environmental management) that are not necessarily perceived to be directly related to core operations. In some cases, kaizen may provide a vehicle for engaging broad-based organizational participation in continual improvement activities that target, in part, physical wastes and environmental impacts.

Kaizen can be a powerful tool for uncovering hidden wastes or waste-generating activities and eliminating them.

Kaizen focuses on waste elimination activities that optimize existing processes and that can be accomplished quickly without significant capital investment. This creates a higher likelihood of quick, sustained results.

Potential Shortcomings:

Failure to involve environmental personnel in a quick kaizen event can potentially result in changes that do not satisfy applicable environmental regulatory requirements (e.g., waste handling requirements, permitting requirements). Care should be taken to consult with environmental staff regarding changes made to environmentally sensitive processes.

Failure to incorporate environmental considerations into kaizen can potentially result in solutions that do not consider inherent environmental risk associated with new processes. For example, an organization might select a change in process chemistry that addresses one improvement need (e.g., product quality, process cycle time) but that might be sub-optimal if the organization considered the material hazards or toxicity and the associated chemical and hazardous waste management obligations.

By not explicitly incorporating environmental considerations into kaizen, valuable pollution prevention and sustainability opportunities may be disregarded. For example, an evident opportunity to conserve water resources may not be explored if water use is not expensive and therefore not considered a wasteful expense that needs to be addressed. Similarly, including environmental considerations in the kaizen event goals can lead to solutions that rely less on hazardous materials or that create less hazardous wastes.

Useful Resources

Productivity Press Development Team. Kaizen for the Shopfloor (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 2002).

Soltero, Conrad and Gregory Waldrip. "Using Kaizen to Reduce Waste and Prevent Pollution." Environmental Quality Management (Spring 2002), 23-37.

Footnotes

1. Joseph Romm. Lean and Clean Management: How to Boost Profits and Productivity by Reducing Pollution (New York: Kodansha America, 1994), 28.

Introduction

5S is a system to reduce waste and optimize productivity through maintaining an orderly workplace and using visual cues to achieve more consistent operational results. Implementation of this method "cleans up" and organizes the workplace basically in its existing configuration, and it is typically the first lean method which organizations implement.

The 5S pillars, Sort (Seiri), Set in Order (Seiton), Shine (Seiso), Standardize (Seiketsu), and Sustain (Shitsuke), provide a methodology for organizing, cleaning, developing, and sustaining a productive work environment. In the daily work of a company, routines that maintain organization and orderliness are essential to a smooth and efficient flow of activities. This lean method encourages workers to improve their working conditions and helps them to learn to reduce waste, unplanned downtime, and in-process inventory.

A typical 5S implementation would result in significant reductions in the square footage of space needed for existing operations. It also would result in the organization of tools and materials into labeled and color coded storage locations, as well as "kits" that contain just what is needed to perform a task. 5S provides the foundation on which other lean methods, such as TPM, cellular manufacturing, just-in-time production, and six sigma can be introduced.

Method and Implementation Approach

5S is a cyclical methodology: sort, set in order, shine, standardize, sustain the cycle. This results in continuous improvement.

The 5S Pillars¹

Sort. Sort, the first S, focuses on eliminating unnecessary items from the workplace that are not needed for current production operations. An effective visual method to identify these unneeded items is called "red tagging", which involves evaluating the necessity of each item in a work area and dealing with it appropriately. A red tag is placed on all items that are not important for operations or that are not in the proper location or quantity. Once the red tag items are identified, these items are then moved to a central holding area for subsequent disposal, recycling, or reassignment. Organizations often find that sorting enables them to reclaim valuable floor space and eliminate such things as broken tools, scrap, and excess raw material.

Set In Order. Set In Order focuses on creating efficient and effective storage methods to arrange items so that they are easy to use and to label them so that they are easy to find and put away. Set in Order can only be implemented once the first pillar, Sort, has cleared the work area of unneeded items. Strategies for effective Set In Order include painting floors, affixing labels and placards to designate proper storage locations and methods, outlining work areas and locations, and installing modular shelving and cabinets.

Shine. Once the clutter that has been clogging the work areas is eliminated and remaining items are organized, the next step is to thoroughly clean the work area. Daily follow-up cleaning is necessary to sustain this improvement. Working in a clean environment enables workers to notice malfunctions in equipment such as leaks, vibrations, breakages, and misalignments. These changes, if left unattended, could lead to equipment failure and loss of production. Organizations often establish Shine targets, assignments, methods, and tools before beginning the shine pillar.

Standardize. Once the first three 5S's have been implemented, the next pillar is to standardize the best practices in the work area. Standardize, the method to maintain the first three pillars, creates a consistent approach with which tasks and procedures are done. The three steps in this process are assigning 5S (Sort, Set in Order, Shine) job responsibilities, integrating 5S duties into regular work duties, and checking on the maintenance of 5S. Some of the tools used in standardizing the 5S procedures are: job cycle charts, visual cues (e.g., signs, placards, display scoreboards), scheduling of "five-minute" 5S periods, and check lists. The second part of Standardize is prevention - preventing accumulation of unneeded items, preventing procedures from breaking down, and preventing equipment and materials from getting dirty.

Sustain. Sustain, making a habit of properly maintaining correct procedures, is often the most difficult S to implement and achieve. Changing entrenched behaviors can be difficult, and the tendency is often to return to the status quo and the comfort zone of the "old way" of doing things. Sustain focuses on defining a new status quo and standard of work place organization. Without the Sustain pillar the achievements of the other pillars will not last long. Tools for sustaining 5S include signs and posters, newsletters, pocket manuals, team and management check-ins, performance reviews, and department tours. Organizations typically seek to reinforce 5S messages in multiple formats until it becomes "the way things are done."

Proper discipline keeps the 5S circle in motion.

Implications for Environmental Performance

Potential Benefits:

Painting the machines and the equipment light colors and cleaning the windows, often done under the Shine pillar, decreases energy needs associated with lighting.

Painting and cleaning makes it easier for workers to notice spills or leaks quickly, thereby decreasing spill response. This can significantly reduce waste generation from spills and clean-up.

The removal of obstacles and the marking of main thoroughfares decreases the potential of accidents that could lead to spills and associated hazardous waste generation (e.g., spilled material, absorbent pads and clean up materials).

Regular cleaning, as part of the Shine pillar, decreases the accumulation of cuttings, shavings, dirt, and other substances that can contaminate production processes and result in defects. Reduction in defects has significant environmental benefits (e.g., avoided materials, wastes, and energy needed to produce the defective output; avoided need to dispose of defective output).

5S implementation can significant reduce the square footage needed for operations by organizing and disposing of unused equipment and supplies. Less storage space decreases energy needed to heat and light the space.

Organizing equipment, parts, and materials so they are easy to find can significantly reduce unneeded consumption. Employees are more likely to finish one batch of chemicals or materials before opening or ordering more, resulting in less chemicals or materials expiring and needing disposal.

5S visual cues (e.g., signs, placards, scoreboards, laminated procedures in workstations) can be used to raise employee understanding of proper waste handling and management procedures, as well as workplace hazards and appropriate emergency response procedures. 5S techniques can be used to improve labeling of hazardous materials and wastes. In addition, environmental procedures often are separate from operating procedures, and they are not easily accessible to the workstation. 5S implementation often result is easy to read, laminated procedures located in workstations. Integration with 5S visual cues and operating procedures can improve employee environmental management.

Potential Shortcomings:

Regularly painting and cleaning machines and equipment could lead to increased use of paints and cleaning supplies. Paints and cleaning supplies may contain solvents and/or chemicals that can result in air emissions or increased waste generation.

Disposing of unneeded equipment and supplies creates a short-term surge in waste generation. In some cases, there may be unlabeled wastes that could be hazardous. Failure to involve environmental personnel in waste handling could result in some wastes being disposed improperly or in lost opportunities for reclamation or recycling.

Useful Resources

Greif, M.. The Visual Factory: Building Participation Through Shared Information (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1995).

Hirano, Hiroyuki. 5 Pillars of the Visual Workplace (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1995).

Peterson, Jim, Roland Smith, Ph.D. The 5S Pocket Guide (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press,1998).

Pojasek, Robert B. "Five Ss: A Tool That Prepares an Organization for Change". Environmental Quality Management (Autumn 1999) 97-103.

Productivity Press Development Team. 5S for Operators: 5 Pillars of the Visual Workplace (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1996).

Productivity Press Development Team. 5S for Safety Implementation Toolkit: Creating Safe Conditions Using the 5S System (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 2000).

Productivity Press Development Team. 5S for Safety: New Eyes for the Shop Floor (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1999).

Shimbun, Nikkan Kogyo, ed. Visual Control Systems (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1995).

Tel-A-Train and the Productivity Development Team. The 5S System: Workplace Organizations Standardization (video) (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1997).

Footnotes

1. Productivity Press Development Team, 5S for Operators: 5 Pillars of the Visual Workplace (Portland, Oregon: Productivity Press, 1996).

By Jim Azumano and Jeff Kuechle

“The difference between a vision and a hallucination,” says corporate change expert Terry Paulson, “is the number of people who see it.”

Encouraging innovation is a key component of our mission at the Northwest Food Processors Education & Research Institute. Quite simply, we focus on giving food processors the resources they need to improve their innovation capacity because, without ongoing innovation, our industry cannot survive. Enterprise-enhancing innovation can come from any employee in your organization. But it is in a corporate culture that embraces change management from the top down that innovation thrives best. That requires vision, not hallucination.

by David McGiverin

In the last publication of the Catalyst we explored an assessment to help your organization establish a baseline against which you can measure Visual Management progress.  

To more fully understand the process your organization may need to go through to implement a VMS, let’s assume that, through the assessment, you discovered that you had an average score of 1 out of 5, implying that no level of visual management is in place.

The next step is to define a region in the workplace that needs improvement. This region is typically easy to identify. It’s the area that has little to no visual communication, and as a result, has become an arena for disorder and mistakes.

This reminds me of an early childhood memory of helping my father organize the garage (Mom’s idea, of course). This was obviously an area of family frustration because my mother stored our canned goods in the garage, while my father believed it was a storage building for items like tools, toys, and trophies. Reconciling the two visions for this space was a daunting task. My father’s approach was to first remove everything from the garage to the driveway, then to separate items into three categories: used, rarely used, and never used. All the while, he kept a list of the items removed and what pile he placed them in.

by David McGiverin

Last month we explored some of my early childhood memories of Visual Management used at home and how the same techniques apply to your company. To re-cap, we discussed how to identify an area in need of Visual Management and an effective starting point to bring order to the workspace. As you may recall, the process begins with sorting and separating items into three main categories (Used, Rarely Used, and Never Used). The next step is to remove the rarely and never used items. The last step, of course, is to decide whether to sell, recycle, or discard the items.

This is a good first step, but what’s missing? If you’ve gone this far, you’ve probably found that your work space has become much cleaner and orderly. The next step is to design and implement a visual system to maintain the order you’ve created. This month, I’ll be talking about the proper arrangement of the items that you decided to keep and how to manage them day to day. ]]> Thu, 17 Jun 2010 19:00:35 +0100 http://www.nwfpa.org/nwfpa.info//index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=213:visual-management-systems&catid=115:visual-management&directory=56 Visual Management Systems

David McGiverin

Every company whether instituted consciously or unconsciously has some level of visual management that helps signal abnormal operating conditions. A series of articles that will be published in upcoming Catalyst issues will formally introduce the approach necessary to implement a Visual Management System that will have a strong positive impact on your company’s competitive advantage.

Visual Management is an environment that continuously displays current production requirements, abnormalities and conditions to everyone in the organization at-a-glance. Implemented correctly Visual Management will present production status, goals, metrics, procedures, standards and expectation through the use of signs, labels, worksheets, lights and color coding.

One of the greatest sources of downtime in food processing is the time it takes to setup for the next production run.  A proven technique to help you reduce Setup Time is the Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) developed by Shigeo Shingo a top Toyota Consultant. Shingo was able to reduce the setup time of a 1000ton press from 4 hours to 3 minutes, a major breakthrough for Toyota.  SMED is also known as Quick Changeover, Startup and Changeover Reduction

By David McGiverin

Spaghetti Diagrams help reveal opportunities to reduce or eliminate the steps and time associated with certain activities such as movement of materials or information.  It's amazing the number of excess steps it takes to accomplish a particular activity in our day-to-day lives at home or at work. This technique is extremely useful when watching people in a plant perform activities within their scope of work, or tracking the movement of product.  By tracing and analyzing their steps you will discover potential improvements that will help employees work “smarter” and accomplish more in less time.

The Theory of Constraints (ToC) is a way to avoid sub-optimizing a local process at the expense of the whole operation.  The idea is based on two simple facts:
 

1. All processes have one weakest link in the chain: a bottleneck. This bottleneck limits the flow of the whole operation.
 
2. Other activities (both in that process and other parts of a plant) have excess capacity when compared to that weakest link and therefore waste resource and time that could be applied to fix the weakest link.
 
3. Once you fix that particular constraint, your overall flow will improve – however, another weakest link will then emerge.
  

By a continuous process of finding the bottleneck, balancing flows, and eliminating excess production throughout a plant the whole operation can be maximized in its productivity.

By Ronak Shah

This is the second of two articles introducing the Theory of Constraints as a production management framework and describing the experience of a local natural food company in implementing the Theory to improve operational performance.  In the first article we introduced the Theory of Constraints and its applicability to some companies in the food processing industry.

By John Alleman, Productivity Measurement & Improvement Advisor

During the off-season, the sales department announces that they would like to book smaller orders to fill plant capacity. They have asked you, the production manager, how this will impact product costs. Intuitively you know: when the plant processes smaller orders for a given product, that means more total time used on product changeovers, and plant machinery runs for less time with more changeover interruption.
   Plant output decreases during a given period of time; fixed product costs per unit of production increase, and direct labor costs increase for a given production volume. Overall production costs per unit of output increase. From a computing standpoint, estimating total plant production output could end up being an Excel worksheet as large as a football field. A real nightmare!

There is a quicker way to estimate this and give sales the information they need. For most manufacturing operations there is normally a good correlation between average order size and direct labor intensity. Average order size is measured in some number of units of output per order. This could be pounds, cases, gallons, etc. It has to be a unit which works well across all of the products and product sizes. Direct labor intensity is simply the number of production units per hour of direct labor.

By David McGiverin

Problems cost money! The following is a simple technique to accelerate the problem evaluation process that can be time consuming due to poor communication. The Problem Statement worksheet is a tool that will help clarify the situation that needs improved in specific measurable terms. This helps everybody involved have a common understanding of the situation, reducing evaluation time.

Problem Statement Worksheet:

Example:

The Cause and Effect Diagram is a visual framework designed to help guide, stimulate, extract and organize thoughts about possible causes to a problem.  The diagram helps narrow down the most likely causes for a more specific analysis without overlooking each essential variable.

Basic Steps:

What is transaction verification?
Transaction Verification is a program of the Oregon Department of Agriculture, Measurement Standards Division used to prevent consumer fraud and ensure fair competition by verifying that scales are properly functioning and scale users are correctly operating their scales. This program is carried out in a number of different ways, including screening packaged products for net contents compliance.

This is the second of two articles to help demystify the regulatory requirements for package fill control and strategies to optimize the process. In the first part the Average Error requirement was presented along with a practical example for illustration. In this part, the Maximum Allowable Variation (MAV) limit of NIST HB133 will be presented and how MAV interrelates with the Average Error limit.